Jacques Barzun and Henry F. Graff, authors of The Modern Researcher, and Carl Gustavson, author of A Preface to History, detail the tools of the historian, although they may not state this so clearly. These two books provided me (John De Gree) the understanding of skills necessary to analyze history. They also inspired me to create something that students in grades 6-12 could use. Lastly, and maybe most importantly, 32 plus years in the classroom as a teacher, and over 16 years in the classroom as a student, has made it apparent to me that the student wants to learn, be inspired, be challenged, and attempt to go beyond himself to strive for perfection in the academic world. To do this, the lessons have to be presented in an understandable format, accessible and logical. Lessons also have to give freedom to the student to create, to imagine, and to express. Following is an explanation of some of the various tools of the historian, according to me. It is not necessary for students to read this explanation. The lessons below are for the teacher. For the student, they will find these lessons in our Teaching the Socratic Discussion Seminar book, as well as our Classical Historian Complete Curriculum. Notice that at Classical Historian we do not provide boxes to check off for the teacher or student. While checklists serve a purpose, when it comes to thinking, checklists tend to hinder deeper thought and expression.
Tool #1
Distinguishing Fact from Opinion
One essential task of the historian is to distinguish between opinion and fact. In the classroom, I found out very fast how my students could not do this without training and practice. Although I thought they already knew, I found that most students under eighteen have had no instruction on the difference between opinion and fact. Often times, people will think that if it is said on television, then it is true. Unfortunately, these students may have only learned history from teachers who tell them what they think happened and why. As educated adults, we know this idea of history is completely false. Consider the varying opinions on the Iraq War during the years of the 43rd President, George H. W. Bush. If you were to ask well-educated adults their opinions about this war, the reasons it started, its success or failure, and its effect on the United States, you will get very different answers, because very few people bother to read in various sources and to find the truth in history.
Tool #2
Forming Good Judgment
For students, historical judgment is one of the key elements of education that is lacking. However, it is normal in other subjects for the teacher to require students to use judgment. It is very common in the
Language Arts classroom to ask students to tell what they think about a particular character in a novel, or to try to persuade somebody to think that the school dress code is onerous. In Science, good teachers
encourage students to perform experiments to test their hypotheses, then to examine the results and form opinions from these results. In classes that used to be available, for example Music Appreciation and Art,
students were allowed to state their own opinion regarding artistic creations. How has history become the dead beat when it comes to analysis and critical thinking? It is in history where opinion, analysis, and
judgment are essential to a quality education. If our students leave the school system unable to make decisions based on the evidence, how do we think they will be able to choose the best job, the best home
mortgage, or the best car loan? Giving our students facts to memorize and telling them how to think prepares them to be robots, not responsible citizens. Do we want the future generation to be equipped with facts but unable to figure out their meaning? Without proper training and practice in judgment, our youth are susceptible to those who want to manipulate them into thinking a certain way or buying particular products they do not need. Forming judgment and defending one’s ideas are the most exciting elements of the history class. Once students realize that their opinions differ from their classmates, and that they don’t have to mimic the teacher’s ideas, history becomes a living subject, a study whose meaning is determined in part by students. Instead of the student just trying to give the teacher what he thinks the teacher wants, the student becomes an active academic, deciding the exact relevance of history.
Tool #3
Supporting Evidence
Supporting evidence refers to everything you use to support your main idea. It does not include peripheral information that may be interesting, but is not necessary to get your point across. Understanding and using supporting evidence properly is necessary in forming and making good judgment. If our students cannot distinguish good supporting evidence from poor, our society will be one where people will believe whatever they are told to believe based on nothing more than anopinion. How many times have we heard from a so-called expert an opinion that is not backed up by evidence? Turn on any news station and try to determine if the broadcaster uses more opinion than fact in making judgment. Do certain stations seem to promote more opinion-based analysis and others more fact-based analysis? Unfortunately, many of our students are not learning these simple lessons. To some, sources of information are more important than the information itself. In some circumstances, how something is said or written is more important than what is said or written. One problem with supporting evidence is what it is not. Many young students, when faced with an essay assignment in history, will throw the facts on paper thinking that, if their paper is full of facts then
the teacher will reward them. In one assignment from my classroom of eighth graders, I ask students to decide if George Washington was necessary for the success of the American Revolution. Without failure,
there are a few students who attempt to place as many facts as possible in their answer. These facts, however, have nothing to do with Washington being responsible. They are about the dates he was born and died, his wife’s biographical information, or where he lived and farmed. Proper training in the use of supporting evidence is necessary to train young students to be analytical thinkers and decision-makers.
Tool #4
How to Read a Textbook
Because of circumstances beyond my control, history textbooks tend to be dry and without excitement. Due to this fact, students find reading informational materials in history very boring. Whatever is boring is hard to remember, as what does not engage the human spirit tends to be quickly forgotten. Perhaps that is one reason that some people say, “I don’t remember anything I learned in history.” Reading with a purpose is the answer that solves the problem of getting students to read the textbook. Once students know that they have to make a choice in the interpretive question, their reading becomes their personal research. Focused on finding information that makes their argument stronger or on evidence that disputes their perspective allows students to navigate through the information they do not need to read. Reading with a purpose helps students focus on the essential, and gives them an internal motivation for reading. Along with an interpretive question that focuses reading, younger students need reading aids that help them along the way. A graphic organizer to fill in, or questions to answer that are specific to the research goal, will help students avoid taking too many notes.
Tool #5
Analyzing Primary Sources
The use of primary sources is essential to the most advanced study of history. It is here where the student comes into direct contact with the historical characters themselves, without any intermediary analysis by experts and teachers. However, because of limits of language ability and practice, primary sources may be too challenging for a lower level English Learner or younger student. It is for these reasons that I recommend, at least in the beginning of study, only using a good textbook. If you don’t have one in your school, then please find supplements! I know it is very challenging to find good secondary source materials without unnecessary pictures. However, our students have to start somewhere, and a good teacher can also provide quality summaries of history his students can use. As soon as the student is ready, introduce primary sources. The more primary sources the student has to analyze the better, and usually, the better-rounded the argument and paper, in terms of learning all of the varying perspectives.
Tool #6
Using Quotes
When making an argument, it is important to show that your idea is supported by others who are working in the field. On television news, “experts” frequently give their opinion on a wide range of topics. It is thought that since they are experts, they should know. Sometimes this is true, but even when it is not it is sometimes advantageous to hear what others think.
More important than using modern-day experts, the writer is strongly encouraged to use primary source quotes from historical figures. Quoting from Plato’s Republic to illustrate what ancient man thought of
philosophy and politics is very powerful. Quoting from autobiographies of historical figures who lived through great events lets the reader get a glimpse into the magic of primary sources. The excellent writer of essays will quote from period historical figures and add their voices to the narrative.
Tool #7
Paraphrasing
The adult may well remember that as a child, he stayed up late at night the evening before the fifth-grade project was due, taking sentences from an encyclopedia and changing the word order around so the teacher
would not accuse him of copying. I remember this. (I think the project was on the state of Nevada!) While we were supposed to be reading and thinking about the information, often times this practice became a
language exercise, testing our ability to work with words. It seems the student today has no practice in paraphrasing, and younger students at times don’t know the difference between copying and paraphrasing. For a homework assignment, I have my students research a person, or an event. Invariably, a few students come back the next day with printed sheets of copy from the internet. “Here are my notes, Mr. De Gree.” Even though I explain to them beforehand that this is not acceptable, there are always a few who try to get by without thinking. The skill of paraphrasing is an important one and one that can be easily learned and practiced in the history classroom. When researching a topic to find supporting evidence for a thesis, paraphrasing is crucial, and natural. It is crucial, because a thesis is only as good as the evidence that supports it. And it is natural, because when you are researching a topic to support a thesis, you will focus only on that information which is necessary for your paper, leaving out unnecessary items. The history
paper is excellent for practicing the skill of paraphrasing.
Tool # 8
Counterargument
The counterargument in a history paper is a must if the paper is to be of the highest quality. The writer first presents the supporting evidence for his thesis, making the strongest argument possible. Then,
the author states the strongest argument against his own thesis and explains the rationale for this. However, this counterargument is to be brief and less involved an explanation than the thesis. After the essayist
writes this counterargument, he then shows how it really is not as strong as some would have you believe. The writer, in effect, is taking the biggest argument of his opponent and showing that it is not that effective. It is as if the other side is having the wind taken from its sails. This technique is extremely beneficial, as it challenges the mind of the author to see things from various perspectives. Because the meaning of history is up to debate, it is essential that the historian be open-minded enough to entertain opposing viewpoints. The
counterargument and refutation makes the paper stronger by showing that the thesis is stronger than the strongest argument from the opposing side.
Tool # 9
Cause and Effect
Cause and effect is an important aspect of historical reasoning.Unfortunately, as Carl Gustavson writes in A Preface to History, it is all too easy and common to turn to one person, or one party, as the cause of something. He gives as the example the tendency of young historians to attribute one cause to the Reformation. “It was Luther,” or, “The Church was corrupt.” These one-cause answers are typical of a writer who wished not to delve deeply and broadly into the variety of causes that may bring about events. As I am writing this, the United States of America is in the middle of another hotly contested presidential election. The claims of the candidates are similar to those claims of the past elections. “It’s his fault.” “He’s the reason everything is broken in Washington. If it wasn’t for him, we would be in this mess.” “If you elect him, you’ll make the terrorists happy. Our country won’t be any safer, but in fact it will be more dangerous.” “If you elect him, America will be a place with more poor on the street.” These claims all adhere to the simplistic idea that one person can be the cause of huge events or massive movements in a country. While it is tempting to become emotionally involved in political debates, the historian has to try with effort to remain detached, and remember that it is a multitude of causes that bring about huge events. Making the claim that “Hitler started World War II” completely forgets Japan’s and the Soviet Union’s appetite for territory, the Versailles Treaty, the demilitarization of France, the appeasement of Hitler by Chamberlain, and the thousand or so years of anti-Jewish ferment in Europe. Of course, it may be challenging to teach the multiple levels of causation to young students, and so our task as teachers may be to just teach them that events have causes. Once we get past this point, we can teach them that typically, events have various causes, some more important than others. The student’s job is to assess the importance of the various causes and to ascertain which cause was the most important.
Tool # 10
Compare and Contrast
While compare and contrast is not typically seen as an element of historical reasoning, it is commonly seen on tests in Language Arts and in Social Studies and is therefore an important skill for the student tolearn. When a student compares and contrasts different items, it allows him to see that people, movements, and countries often have similarities and differences. This very obvious notion for the adult teacher is often
lost on the student. The compare and contrast essay also teaches how to organize a complex argument.
Tool #1
Distinguishing Fact from Opinion
One essential task of the historian is to distinguish between opinion and fact. In the classroom, I found out very fast how my students could not do this without training and practice. Although I thought they already knew, I found that most students under eighteen have had no instruction on the difference between opinion and fact. Often times, people will think that if it is said on television, then it is true. Unfortunately, these students may have only learned history from teachers who tell them what they think happened and why. As educated adults, we know this idea of history is completely false. Consider the varying opinions on the Iraq War during the years of the 43rd President, George H. W. Bush. If you were to ask well-educated adults their opinions about this war, the reasons it started, its success or failure, and its effect on the United States, you will get very different answers, because very few people bother to read in various sources and to find the truth in history.
Tool #2
Forming Good Judgment
For students, historical judgment is one of the key elements of education that is lacking. However, it is normal in other subjects for the teacher to require students to use judgment. It is very common in the
Language Arts classroom to ask students to tell what they think about a particular character in a novel, or to try to persuade somebody to think that the school dress code is onerous. In Science, good teachers
encourage students to perform experiments to test their hypotheses, then to examine the results and form opinions from these results. In classes that used to be available, for example Music Appreciation and Art,
students were allowed to state their own opinion regarding artistic creations. How has history become the dead beat when it comes to analysis and critical thinking? It is in history where opinion, analysis, and
judgment are essential to a quality education. If our students leave the school system unable to make decisions based on the evidence, how do we think they will be able to choose the best job, the best home
mortgage, or the best car loan? Giving our students facts to memorize and telling them how to think prepares them to be robots, not responsible citizens. Do we want the future generation to be equipped with facts but unable to figure out their meaning? Without proper training and practice in judgment, our youth are susceptible to those who want to manipulate them into thinking a certain way or buying particular products they do not need. Forming judgment and defending one’s ideas are the most exciting elements of the history class. Once students realize that their opinions differ from their classmates, and that they don’t have to mimic the teacher’s ideas, history becomes a living subject, a study whose meaning is determined in part by students. Instead of the student just trying to give the teacher what he thinks the teacher wants, the student becomes an active academic, deciding the exact relevance of history.
Tool #3
Supporting Evidence
Supporting evidence refers to everything you use to support your main idea. It does not include peripheral information that may be interesting, but is not necessary to get your point across. Understanding and using supporting evidence properly is necessary in forming and making good judgment. If our students cannot distinguish good supporting evidence from poor, our society will be one where people will believe whatever they are told to believe based on nothing more than anopinion. How many times have we heard from a so-called expert an opinion that is not backed up by evidence? Turn on any news station and try to determine if the broadcaster uses more opinion than fact in making judgment. Do certain stations seem to promote more opinion-based analysis and others more fact-based analysis? Unfortunately, many of our students are not learning these simple lessons. To some, sources of information are more important than the information itself. In some circumstances, how something is said or written is more important than what is said or written. One problem with supporting evidence is what it is not. Many young students, when faced with an essay assignment in history, will throw the facts on paper thinking that, if their paper is full of facts then
the teacher will reward them. In one assignment from my classroom of eighth graders, I ask students to decide if George Washington was necessary for the success of the American Revolution. Without failure,
there are a few students who attempt to place as many facts as possible in their answer. These facts, however, have nothing to do with Washington being responsible. They are about the dates he was born and died, his wife’s biographical information, or where he lived and farmed. Proper training in the use of supporting evidence is necessary to train young students to be analytical thinkers and decision-makers.
Tool #4
How to Read a Textbook
Because of circumstances beyond my control, history textbooks tend to be dry and without excitement. Due to this fact, students find reading informational materials in history very boring. Whatever is boring is hard to remember, as what does not engage the human spirit tends to be quickly forgotten. Perhaps that is one reason that some people say, “I don’t remember anything I learned in history.” Reading with a purpose is the answer that solves the problem of getting students to read the textbook. Once students know that they have to make a choice in the interpretive question, their reading becomes their personal research. Focused on finding information that makes their argument stronger or on evidence that disputes their perspective allows students to navigate through the information they do not need to read. Reading with a purpose helps students focus on the essential, and gives them an internal motivation for reading. Along with an interpretive question that focuses reading, younger students need reading aids that help them along the way. A graphic organizer to fill in, or questions to answer that are specific to the research goal, will help students avoid taking too many notes.
Tool #5
Analyzing Primary Sources
The use of primary sources is essential to the most advanced study of history. It is here where the student comes into direct contact with the historical characters themselves, without any intermediary analysis by experts and teachers. However, because of limits of language ability and practice, primary sources may be too challenging for a lower level English Learner or younger student. It is for these reasons that I recommend, at least in the beginning of study, only using a good textbook. If you don’t have one in your school, then please find supplements! I know it is very challenging to find good secondary source materials without unnecessary pictures. However, our students have to start somewhere, and a good teacher can also provide quality summaries of history his students can use. As soon as the student is ready, introduce primary sources. The more primary sources the student has to analyze the better, and usually, the better-rounded the argument and paper, in terms of learning all of the varying perspectives.
Tool #6
Using Quotes
When making an argument, it is important to show that your idea is supported by others who are working in the field. On television news, “experts” frequently give their opinion on a wide range of topics. It is thought that since they are experts, they should know. Sometimes this is true, but even when it is not it is sometimes advantageous to hear what others think.
More important than using modern-day experts, the writer is strongly encouraged to use primary source quotes from historical figures. Quoting from Plato’s Republic to illustrate what ancient man thought of
philosophy and politics is very powerful. Quoting from autobiographies of historical figures who lived through great events lets the reader get a glimpse into the magic of primary sources. The excellent writer of essays will quote from period historical figures and add their voices to the narrative.
Tool #7
Paraphrasing
The adult may well remember that as a child, he stayed up late at night the evening before the fifth-grade project was due, taking sentences from an encyclopedia and changing the word order around so the teacher
would not accuse him of copying. I remember this. (I think the project was on the state of Nevada!) While we were supposed to be reading and thinking about the information, often times this practice became a
language exercise, testing our ability to work with words. It seems the student today has no practice in paraphrasing, and younger students at times don’t know the difference between copying and paraphrasing. For a homework assignment, I have my students research a person, or an event. Invariably, a few students come back the next day with printed sheets of copy from the internet. “Here are my notes, Mr. De Gree.” Even though I explain to them beforehand that this is not acceptable, there are always a few who try to get by without thinking. The skill of paraphrasing is an important one and one that can be easily learned and practiced in the history classroom. When researching a topic to find supporting evidence for a thesis, paraphrasing is crucial, and natural. It is crucial, because a thesis is only as good as the evidence that supports it. And it is natural, because when you are researching a topic to support a thesis, you will focus only on that information which is necessary for your paper, leaving out unnecessary items. The history
paper is excellent for practicing the skill of paraphrasing.
Tool # 8
Counterargument
The counterargument in a history paper is a must if the paper is to be of the highest quality. The writer first presents the supporting evidence for his thesis, making the strongest argument possible. Then,
the author states the strongest argument against his own thesis and explains the rationale for this. However, this counterargument is to be brief and less involved an explanation than the thesis. After the essayist
writes this counterargument, he then shows how it really is not as strong as some would have you believe. The writer, in effect, is taking the biggest argument of his opponent and showing that it is not that effective. It is as if the other side is having the wind taken from its sails. This technique is extremely beneficial, as it challenges the mind of the author to see things from various perspectives. Because the meaning of history is up to debate, it is essential that the historian be open-minded enough to entertain opposing viewpoints. The
counterargument and refutation makes the paper stronger by showing that the thesis is stronger than the strongest argument from the opposing side.
Tool # 9
Cause and Effect
Cause and effect is an important aspect of historical reasoning.Unfortunately, as Carl Gustavson writes in A Preface to History, it is all too easy and common to turn to one person, or one party, as the cause of something. He gives as the example the tendency of young historians to attribute one cause to the Reformation. “It was Luther,” or, “The Church was corrupt.” These one-cause answers are typical of a writer who wished not to delve deeply and broadly into the variety of causes that may bring about events. As I am writing this, the United States of America is in the middle of another hotly contested presidential election. The claims of the candidates are similar to those claims of the past elections. “It’s his fault.” “He’s the reason everything is broken in Washington. If it wasn’t for him, we would be in this mess.” “If you elect him, you’ll make the terrorists happy. Our country won’t be any safer, but in fact it will be more dangerous.” “If you elect him, America will be a place with more poor on the street.” These claims all adhere to the simplistic idea that one person can be the cause of huge events or massive movements in a country. While it is tempting to become emotionally involved in political debates, the historian has to try with effort to remain detached, and remember that it is a multitude of causes that bring about huge events. Making the claim that “Hitler started World War II” completely forgets Japan’s and the Soviet Union’s appetite for territory, the Versailles Treaty, the demilitarization of France, the appeasement of Hitler by Chamberlain, and the thousand or so years of anti-Jewish ferment in Europe. Of course, it may be challenging to teach the multiple levels of causation to young students, and so our task as teachers may be to just teach them that events have causes. Once we get past this point, we can teach them that typically, events have various causes, some more important than others. The student’s job is to assess the importance of the various causes and to ascertain which cause was the most important.
Tool # 10
Compare and Contrast
While compare and contrast is not typically seen as an element of historical reasoning, it is commonly seen on tests in Language Arts and in Social Studies and is therefore an important skill for the student tolearn. When a student compares and contrasts different items, it allows him to see that people, movements, and countries often have similarities and differences. This very obvious notion for the adult teacher is often
lost on the student. The compare and contrast essay also teaches how to organize a complex argument.
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